Аккадский вентив и его функции в староассирийском языке тема диссертации и автореферата по ВАК РФ 00.00.00, кандидат наук Коваль Сергей Андреевич

• Коваль Сергей Андреевич
• кандидат наук
• 2025

Оглавление диссертации кандидат наук Коваль Сергей Андреевич

Table of contents

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1. A new etymology of the Akkadian ventive

Chapter 2. The deictic shifts of the ventive in Old Assyrian

2.1. Trivial meanings of ventive

2.2. The ventive as a "spacer"

2.3. The ventive and dative pronouns on caused motion verbs

2.4. The ventive agreement (echo constructions)

2.5. Some ventive statistics for the OA corpus

2.6. The ventive points to the writer's future locatio n

2.7. The ventive points to a non-SAP location

2.8. Results

Chapter 3. The Old Assyrian ventive as an associated motion marker

3.1. Associated motion

3.2. Echo constructions

3.3. The case of advanced lexicalization

3.4. The case of the first stage of lexicalization

3.5. Intermediate cases

3.6. Results

Chapter 4. The Old Assyrian ventive as a benefactive marker

4.1. History of research

4.2. rb marker in OA

4.3. Non-reflexive benefactive marker in OA

4.4. Results

CONCLUSIONS

Appendix №1: Bibliographic abbreviations

Appendix №2: Abbreviations in glosses

Appendix №3: References

Appendix №4: Translation of the dissertation into Russian / Перевод диссертации на

русский язык

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Введение диссертации (часть автореферата) на тему «Аккадский вентив и его функции в староассирийском языке»

INTRODUCTION.

This dissertation examines the morpheme -aml-ml-nem in the Old Assyrian language. Old Assyrian is a member of the Semitic language family, specifically within the East Semitic branch, alongside Old Akkadian, Old Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian, and others. In the Assyriological tradition, East Semitic languages are often collectively referred to as "Akkadian" which is further subdivided into dialects. However, in this study, the terms "East Semitic" or "Akkadian languages" will be used. The ventive morpheme is present not only in Old Assyrian but also in other Akkadian languages.

The object of this study is the morpheme -aml-ml-nem in Old Assyrian. It has two primary and well-documented functions: indicating motion toward the speaker or addressee (ventive), as in illik-am 'he came (here)', and marking the first-person dative, as in iddin-am 'he gave (to me)'. Additionally, it has developed three secondary meanings: motion toward a non-SAP (non-speech act participant), associated motion, and benefactive. These three uses of the morpheme -aml-ml-nem have not been extensively addressed in Assyriological or linguistic literature. The term "ventive" will be used in this study as a general label for this morpheme. Also, a new etymology of the Akkadian ventive is proposed.

The material consists of Old Assyrian texts dating to 1890-1860 BCE, discovered in the ancient city of Kanes (modern Kultepe), which was the main trading colony of Assyrian merchants in Anatolia. Unlike consonantal alphabets used to document some West Semitic languages (e.g., Phoenician or Ancient Hebrew), the Akkadian cuneiform script includes vowels, allowing a relatively accurate understanding of Old Assyrian morphology.

The first tablets from Kultepe, originating from looters' excavations, became known to European scholars in 1881. In 1924, B. Landsberger identified the city of Kanes, mentioned in the texts, with the site of Kultepe. In 1925, B. Hrozny conducted the first systematic excavations, uncovering about a thousand tablets. Since 1948, excavations at the site have been carried out annually by Turkish archaeologists under the direction of T. Ozguç. Most of the documents were discovered in the area that historically housed the commercial district (karum), and they originate from the archaeological layer of Karum II

(1974-1835 BCE). Documents from the upper part of the mound, where a fortress with the administrative buildings of the local ruler was once located, are extremely scarce. The tablets discovered before the start of official Turkish excavations are dispersed across various museums worldwide, with the largest collections found in Paris, London, Berlin, New Haven, Istanbul, and Prague. In Russia, documents from Kultepe are housed in the Hermitage Museum and the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts. Since 1948, more than 17,000 tablets have been unearthed, and these are stored in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara. Among the documents discovered in Kultepe, business letters occupy a prominent position. These letters primarily originate from Assur but also from smaller trade centers within Anatolia. This epistolary corpus is particularly informative from a grammatical standpoint, though lexical insights are limited by the predominantly commercial nature of the letters. Other Kanes documents, such as contracts, promissory notes, and court records, are highly standardized and less valuable for linguistic analysis. The cuneiform archives of Kanes merchants constitute the vast majority of Old Assyrian records. A small number of commercial texts have also been discovered in excavations of smaller trading colonies (such as Bogazkoy-Hattusa and Ali§ar-Amkuwa) and the city of Assur itself.

The secondary functions of the ventive morpheme, including motion toward a non-SAP, associated motion, and benefactive, have not previously been the subject of corpus-based research in Old Assyrian or other Akkadian languages. This constitutes the novelty of this research. Misinterpreting this morpheme can distort text interpretation. Furthermore, this study establishes a precedent for examining this morpheme in other Akkadian languages. Linguistic analysis in Semitology, and particularly in Assyriology, often falls short of contemporary standards, with corpus-based approaches still rare due to the traditional emphasis on philological methods in studying ancient written Semitic languages. Conversely, Assyriological material has not attracted typologists' attention, as linguists tend to focus on living or endangered languages. This highlights the relevance of this dissertation, which aims to provide a comprehensive description of all functions of the ventive morpheme in Old Assyrian.

Objectives. The study aims to: formulate a research corpus, identify relevant

contexts, conduct a philological analysis of relevant examples, identify patterns and describe the results.

The methodology employed in this study represents a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach, combining traditional philological techniques with modern linguistic insights to achieve a deeper understanding of the material. The philological analysis focuses on examination of cuneiform texts. This traditional foundation is enhanced by incorporating perspectives and methodologies from contemporary linguistics, which provide a framework for analyzing language structures. To ensure an accurate interpretation of the texts, the author extensively consulted publications and scholarly works that describe the socio-economic and cultural realities of the Old Assyrian period. By understanding the nuances of Old Assyrian economic and social systems, the author was able to decode the implicit meanings and practical functions of the terms and expressions found in the texts. Additionally, the study leverages parallels between the linguistic patterns found in the corpus and contemporary linguistic theories to provide a fresh perspective on the material. This includes drawing on insights into semantic changes, pragmatic functions, and syntactic structures, which help to illuminate how language was used in practical and administrative settings during the Old Assyrian period. By applying these modern analytical tools, the study bridges the gap between the dead language and present-day linguistic understanding.

[Kouwenberg 2017] is a standard grammar of Old Assyrian. The author discusses the provenance, dating, and corpus of Old Assyrian texts, categorizing them based on geographical location and genre. The section on syllabary and spelling examines the Old Assyrian script, focusing on its sign inventory, polyvalence, and conventions of transliteration. The author addresses issues such as spelling variations, the use of logograms, and frequent scribal errors. The representation of weak consonants and principles of transcription are also scrutinized to clarify ambiguities in the text. Phonology is treated comprehensively, with a detailed analysis of consonants, vowels, and syllable structure. The author discusses phenomena such as gemination, assimilation, vowel alternation, and epenthesis. The author categorizes noun patterns, derivational processes, and loanwords from Sumerian and Anatolian. Gender, case, and number are

explained with reference to both regular and irregular forms. Similarly, adjectives are examined in terms of formation, inflection, and syntax, illustrating their roles in agreement and comparison. Syntax receives coverage, especially in the chapters on case usage and verbal categories. The author discusses the nominative, genitive, accusative, and dative cases. Verbal morphology is explored through conjugation paradigms and derived stems, with particular attention to weak verbs and their irregularities. [Veenhof 1972] is a main study of Old Assyrian trade. It begins with introductory remarks and foundational concepts necessary to understand the Old Assyrian trade networks. This is followed by a detailed exploration of the practical aspects of trade, such as the roles of donkeys in transportation and their equipment and loads, including discussions on harness types and the goods carried, such as tin and textiles. This includes discussions about the specific methods used for securing and wrapping goods, the containers utilized, and the terminology associated with these practices. Additionally, the text includes excursuses on topics like material deficiencies, such as weight losses in refining, and the manipulation of weights. There is a detailed analysis of textile characteristics, including size, weight, and the differentiation between textiles and garments. Provenance of textiles, such as Babylonian imports and local Assyrian production, is also elaborated. Taxes and tolls, particularly the term datum, are given a central focus. Lastly, the book addresses smuggling practices.

[Oshima 2006] examines the distinctions and continuities between direct and indirect speech. The author highlights the significance of perspective-taking and contextualization in language, setting the stage for an analysis of deictic expressions, empathy-loaded terms, and attitude predicates. The author discusses the Direct and Indirect Discourse continuum, exploring the interplay between these modes of reported speech. He analyzes key elements such as imperatives, indexicals, deictic pivots, and sensation predicates that blur the strict binary categorization of direct and indirect discourse. The author presents these findings as a basis for deeper analysis in subsequent chapters. The dissertation delves into direct features in indirect discourse, examining nuances such as de re versus de dicto and de se versus non-de se attitude reports. The author explores how deictic reference points and empathy relations influence reported

speech, discussing compositional semantics and their implications. In the chapters on Deictic, Logophoric, and Empathic Perspectives, the author analyzes complex linguistic phenomena, such as motion deixis, shifted indexicals, and empathy-loaded expressions. He proposes alternative models to account for perspective shifts and presupposition projections in reported discourse. The analysis includes innovative semantic frameworks that explain how these shifts affect interpretation, focusing on how speakers and listeners navigate context-dependent language features. The final discussions focus on the interaction of perspectives and the restrictions governing them. The author introduces hierarchies of attitude predicates and their semantic classes, emphasizing the consistency and vividness of perspectives across contexts.

[Guillaume, Koch 2021] explores the linguistic phenomenon of associated motion, addressing its typological, grammatical, and semantic aspects. It is organized into five parts, with the first focusing on broad theoretical perspectives and general issues. The authors discuss associated motion as a grammatical category and its relationship with directionality and serial verb constructions. The second part delves into associated motion in Australian and South Pacific languages. The authors also discuss preverbal directionals in Austronesian languages, highlighting regional patterns and linguistic diversity. In the Americas, explored in Part III, associated motion is analyzed across a range of languages. The volume includes discussions of associated motion in the Otomi language family, emphasizing the integration of this category into various linguistic frameworks. Part IV addresses African languages, focusing on Bantu, Atlantic, and Nilotic language families, among others. The authors examine the intersection of associated motion with aspects such as ventive markers, deictic directionality, and argument structure. Finally, Part V explores associated motion in Asian languages, with a focus on Sino-Tibetan and Tungusic languages. The authors analyze argument structures and the interaction of associated motion with deictic and aspectual markers.

The research corpus comprises a limited but significant set of Old Assyrian texts (3,000 texts, approximately 150,000 words).

The corpus of the study comprises AKT 6a (Larsen, M.T. 2010. Kültepe tabletleri Vl-a. The archive of the Salim-Assur family I. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yaymlari),

AKT 6b (Larsen, M.T. 2013. Kültepe tabletleri Vl-b. The archive of the Salim-Assur family II. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlari), AKT 6c (Larsen, M.T. 2014. Kültepe tabletleri VI-c. The archive of the Salim-Assur family III. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlari), AKT 6d (Larsen, M.T. 2018. Kültepe tabletleri VI-d. The archive of the Salim-Assur family IV. (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlari), AKT 6e (Larsen, M.T. 2021. Kültepe tabletleri VI-e. The archive of the Salim-Assur family V. (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlari), Prag I (Hecker, Karl, Kruszat Guido and Lubo r Matous. 1998. Kappodokische Keilschrittafeln aus den Sammlungen der Karlsuniversität Prag. (Prague: Filozoficka fakulta Univerzity Karlovy), TPAK (Michel, Cécile and Garelli, Paul. 1997. Tablettes paléo-assyriennes de Kültepe. Paris: De Boccard). I have also used examples from a List of Old Assyrian verbs created by N.J.C. Kouwenberg during his work on "A Grammar of Old Assyrian", published in 2017. N.J.C. Kouwenberg kindly shared this important List with me and granted permission for its use. The List contains nearly all verbs attested in Old Assyrian, detailing the shapes of their morphological forms (tenses and moods), and includes a wealth of references to texts.

Despite inherent challenges in studying a dead language, including the absence of informants, the Old Assyrian corpus offers some advantages. Unlike other East Semitic corpora, 99% of Old Assyrian texts were found at a single site, making it the most homogeneous corpus of ancient written languages. These texts reflect everyday spoken language, unlike some other ancient Semitic languages, where only literary texts have survived. The city of Assur (called "the City" in the texts) established itself as a trad ing hub, attracting foreign merchants for buying and selling goods. The archival evidence from Assur's main trading colony in Asia Minor, Kanes, attest to it. It highlights Assur's key role in international trade. Assur imported tin, woolen textiles, and lapis lazuli into Anatolia and returned with gold and silver. Silver was essential for acquiring goods from Babylonian merchants, such as copper from Oman and woolen textiles for Anatolian markets, as well as paying traders from Susa in Elam for their tin and lapis lazuli. Assur was a central trading hub in an extensive international network connecting southern Mesopotamia, Elam, and Anatolia. The economic power of the city stemmed from its ability to buy, supply, and exchange essential goods, such as tin for bronze production.

Assur's history is intertwined with its role in international trade, reflected in the composition and priorities of the City Assembly, where merchants played a significant role. Overland trade generated substantial work and income, providing the city and its inhabitants with an influx of silver. The import of high-value goods like tin and textiles to Anatolia formed the foundation of Assur's success, as Assyrian traders operated in foreign territories without military backing. Mutual economic interests, adherence to treaties (including import taxes, local rulers' rights of preemption, extraterritorial privileges, caravan security, and compensation for losses), ensured Assur's prominent position abroad. Assur's strategic location, near a key crossing of the Tigris, likely facilitated its early involvement in commerce. Determining how early this activity began is challenging. The trade in tin for bronze production, carried out by Old Assyrian caravans, has roots in earlier periods.

There are numerous letters preserved in the archives of Assyrian merchants, exchanged among family members. These focus on two main areas: long-distance trade and daily life. These texts were typically stored on shelves along the walls of homes, or in wooden boxes and clay jars, often labeled with clay tags to indicate their contents. Letters and legal contracts were enclosed in clay envelopes or labeled with clay tags that bore cylinder seal imprints. These imprints acted as signatures and marks of ownership, serving as a certification for sealed legal documents. The Old Assyrian syllabary was relatively straightforward, consisting of no more than 150 to 200 signs, with very few logograms and complex syllabic characters. Letters appear to have been written directly by their authors, likely because merchants frequently traveled and thus may not have relied on professional scribes.

State of research. The ventive morpheme in East Semitic languages was first described in [Landsberger 1924], who coined the term "der Ventiv". In English linguistics, the term "ventive" emerged independently and is used alongside terms like "venitive," "centripetal," and "cislocative," denoting morphemes that indicate motion toward the speaker [Guillaume, Koch 2021: 10].

The most detailed prior study of the East Semitic ventive was [Kouwenberg 2002], based on Old Babylonian, an Akkadian language contemporary to Old Assyrian.

Kouwenberg described the ventive as a reflexive marker with meanings such as "for oneself' and noted its potential for universal application, though it often adds little to the meaning. [Loesov 2006] examined "problematic ventives" in Old Babylonian, including ventives with dative meanings for third persons and reflexive-benefactive uses, without relying on a defined corpus.

The standard Old Assyrian grammar describes "ventives on verbs of obtaining" and "ventives on verbs of leaving and remaining" [Kouwenberg 2017]. [Sjors 2023] discusses ventives in non-motion verbs and reconstructs the ventive's development through the following stages: allative > dative > benefactive > reflexive-benefactive > ethical dative. Sjors' analysis, however, mixes data from various Akkadian corpora and genres. Finally, [Fix 2021] critiques Sjors' findings, expressing skepticism about the evidence for a "middle ventive."

The following results are presented for the defense:

1. The Akkadian ventive originates from two Proto-Semitic deictic particles, *ha and *nV-. It later entered a paradigmatic relationship with the morpheme -nim, the firstperson dative marker "to me," which came to denote ventive in plural forms, while -am indicated dative in singular forms.

2. In Old Assyrian, the ventive can indicate motion toward a non-SAP. In some cases, it is connected to the future location of the author.

3. In echo constructions and on specific verbs, -am/-m/-nem can indicate associated motion, i.e. add a motion component to verbs that lack the motion semantics.

4. The -am/-m/-nem morpheme can also denote benefactive or reflexive-benefactive, particularly on verbs of obtaining or certain intransitive verbs indirectly related to semantics of obtaining.

The theoretical significance of the dissertation is determined by the exhaustive description of the functions of -am/-m/-nem in Old Assyrian, contributing to both Assyriology and Linguistics. It highlights some rare linguistic phenomena, including the origins of the ventive from demonstrative markers, its extension to third-person deixis, and its development into a general benefactive/reflexive-benefactive morpheme. The findings hold practical relevance for teaching Assyriological and typological courses.

Approval of the work. One paper has been published on the topic of the dissertation, and two have been accepted for publication.

Koval, S and S. Loesov. The Ventive and Deictic Shift: The Case of Old Assyrian // Studies in Language. 2025. Published online, https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.23050.kov

Koval S. Associated Motion in Old Assyrian // Acta Linguistica Petropolitana (in

print).

Koval, S and S. Loesov. The Ventive as a Benefactive Marker: the Case of Old Assyrian // Journal of Semitic Studies (in print).

Two out of the three papers were co-authored with S. Loesov. The contributions of the dissertation author include the search and selection of materials, philological analysis of examples, and writing the articles' texts. S. Loesov's contributions include the philological analysis of the materials and editing the articles' texts.

Structure and volume of the work. The dissertation comprises 172 pages and includes an Introduction, four chapters, a Conclusion, and four appendices: a Russian translation, a list of abbreviations, a catalog of cited texts, and a bibliography (83 sources).

Chapter 1 introduces a new etymology for the Akkadian ventive. It is traced back to the combination of two Proto-Semitic deictic particles: *ha and *nV-. At an early stage, the ventive appeared only as -am and was attached to finite forms without inflectional suffixes. In the next stage, this gap in the paradigm was filled by the emergence of the allomorph -nim. The allomorph -nim was originally a dative personal pronoun rather than a cislocative marker.

Chapter 2 provides a description of the Old Assyrian ventive, which indicates the location of the non-SAP. This function becomes possible due to a "second stage" deictic shift, which requires specific conditions, particularly anaphoric reference to a previously mentioned place that also serves as the future location of the speaker. Additionally, the ventive can be used to indicate the location of a third person distinct from the speaker's location, as illustrated in example (1):

(1) Luqutam siati iste tirtiama abkanem, u luqutam sa Mannu-ki-Istar. Mimma luqutem annitem ana Wahsusana abkanem.

luqut-am siati iste tirt-i-a-ma abk-a-nem u

merchandise-A this with message.C-G-1S-TOP send.iMV-P-VN and luqut-am sa Mannu-ki-Istar mimma luqut-em

merchandise-A rel Mannu-ki-Istar all merchandise-G

anni-t-em ana Wahsusana abk-a-nem this-F-G to Wahsusana send.iMV-P-VN

'Send (thither) this merchandise along with my message, as well as the merchandise of Mannu-ki-Istar. Send (thither) all this merchandise to Wahsusana' [CCT 4, 16c: 1015].

The form abka-nem 'deliver!' includes the suffix -nem, a plural allomorph of the ventive. In the letter, the author instructs the recipients to deliver his message and goods belonging to him to the city of Wahshushana. Neither the author nor the recipients are located in Wahshushana; any other interpretation would render the message nonsensical. In this case, the ventive on the motion verb 'deliver' indicates movement toward the location of a third person.

Chapter 3 discusses the associated motion ventive in Old Assyrian. The associated motion marker adds a motion component to a verb that does not inherently have a motion-related meaning. This can be either syntactically conditioned (in echo constructions) or used independently with a specific set of verbs, which are examined in detail in this chapter. See Example (2):

(2) Summa sannatem tas?amanem, subate kalasunu u sannatem ana Il-

wedaku piqdama harran Durhumit lisridam.

summa sann-at-em ta-s?am-a-nem subat-e

if cauldron-P-O 2-buy.PRT-P-D.1S textile-O

kala-sunu u sann-at-em ana Ili-wedaku piqd-a-ma

all-3P and kettle-P-O to Ili-wedaku entrust.IMV-P-and

harran Durhumit l-i-srid-am

way.C Durhumit VOL-3S.M-load.up.PRT-AM

'If you purchased cauldrons for me, hand over all the textiles and the cauldrons to

Ili-wedaku so he loads (them) up (and comes) (to where I am) on his way to Durhumit'

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[VS 26, 18: 6-12].

The verb 'to load' does not inherently carry a motion component. In the form lisrid-am 'let him load', it is the morpheme -am that adds the element of motion. Thus, it functions as a marker of associated motion.

Chapter 4 addresses the ventive as a benefactive marker. Benefactive markers in Old Assyrian come in two types: reflexive-benefactive and general benefactive. The reflexive-benefactive is primarily found with verbs related to acquisition (e.g., laqa?um 'to take, to receive'). The general benefactive marker appears with one specific transitive verb and sporadically with various intransitive verbs whose semantics are also related to possession (e.g., riahum 'to remain (as property or debt)'). See example (3) for the reflexive-benefactive marker:

(3) Tuppam sa Âlem Assur-imitti ana sassuhika ils-qé-a-am. Anaku rabisu. tupp-am sa Âl-em Assur-imitti ana sassuh-i-ka document-A rel City-G Assur-imittï to extradiction.C-G-2s.M i-lqe-am anaku rabis-u

3 s. M-take. prt-rb 1 s attorney-N

'Assur-imittï obtained FOR himself a document from the City to have you extradited. I am the attorney' [VS 26, 112: 5-6].

Presentation of material. The dissertation includes a substantial number of examples from the Old Assyrian language. These examples are presented in separate paragraphs, featuring morpheme-by-morpheme analysis, glossing, and translation. Continuous numbering is used for examples and tables throughout the dissertation. Each example is accompanied by glossing, a translation into English, and a reference to its source. The examples are given in traditional Assyriological orthography, as demonstrated below.

In Old Assyrian, it is customary to distinguish 20 consonants. The traditional Old Assyrian transcription is compared to corresponding international phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols in the table below.

Table 1. Consonants in Old Assyrian

Stops and Affricates

Bilabial Alveolar PostAlveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal

Voiceless P / P t / t k / k ? / ?

Voiced b / b d / d g / g

Pharyngealized t / tç q / q

Fricatives

Bilabial Alveolar PostAlveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal

Voiceless s / s s / f b / X

Voiced z / z

Pharyngealized s /

Sonorants

Bilabial Alveolar PostAlveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal

Nasal m / m n / n

Lateral l / l

Apical r / r

Approximant w / w y / J

OA has eight vowels. Short: a / a, e / e, i / i, u / u Long: a/ a:, ë / e:, i / i:, m / u:

The symbols a, ê, î, û are used in grammatical descriptions of Akkadian to represent

long vowels that result from contractions of two vowels.

In the interlinearized text, unlike in the running transcription, I present context-free

shapes of grammatical forms and affixes, in particular those of the ventive itself. The

ventive is characterized by the final -m which always gets assimilated to the following

consonant (provided there is one in the same phonetic word). Thus, the broad transcription

will help the reader identify the ventive within the respective verb forms.

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Заключение диссертации по теме «Другие cпециальности», Коваль Сергей Андреевич

ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ.

Положения, которые выносились на защиту:

1. Аккадский вентив восходит к сочетанию двух прасемитских дейктических частиц аиё *пУ-. Затем вентив вступил в парадигматические отношения с морфемой -пт, глагольным показателем датива первого лица 'мне'. Показатель -пт стал употребляться во множественном числе для обозначения вентива, а -ат -для обозначения датива при глагольном субъекте в единственном числе.

2. Вентив в староассирийском языке может указывать на движение к третьему лицу. В некоторых случаях это обусловлено указанием на будущее местонахождение автора.

3. В составе эхо-конструкций и на определённых глаголах показатель -ат/-т/-пет может указывать на сопутствующее движение, т.е. придавать компонент последующего движения глаголам, не имеющим семантики движения.

4. Показатель -ат/-т/-пет может иметь значение бенефактива и рефлексива-бенефактива. Показатель рефлексива-бенефактива употребляется на глаголах с семантикой приобретения, а показатель бенефактива - на некоторых непереходных глаголах, также косвенно связанных с семантикой приобретения.

В диссертации рассмотрены четыре вопроса, связанных со староассирийским показателем вентива в частности и аккадским вентивом вообще. Установлено, что среди трёх алломорфов аккадского вентива -ат/-т/-пет показатель -ат восходит к сочетанию двух прасемитских презентативных частиц: *ка и *п¥-. При этом переход *-Нап > -ат реконструируется следящим образом: гортанный спирант /к/ был утрачен в восточносемитских языках на раннем этапе; финальный /п/ в *кап перешел в /т/ в ауслауте в результате парадигматического выравнивания к дативной парадигме. Этот переход можно считать тривиальным. Таким образом, на ранней стадии вентив выглядел только как -ат и присоединялся к финитным формам без флективных суффиксов, таких как ИШат 'он пришёл сюда'. На следующем этапе этот пробел в парадигме восполнился: появился алломорф -шт. Алломорф -пт изначально является дативным личным местоимением, а не цислокативным показателем (наряду с -кит 'тебе' (2-е лицо муж. р.), -кт 'тебе' (2-е

лицо жен. р.), -sum 'ему', -sim 'ей'). Затем суффиксы -am и -nem слились и стали алломорфами одного показателя. Это объясняется типологической близостью датива и вентива: развитие из аллативного «сюда» в дативное «мне» хорошо известно в межъязыковой перспективе.

Базовая функция восточносемитского вентива - цислокатив. Он также подвергается двум дейктическим переходам. Во-первых, староассирийский вентив стал необходим при указании на местоположение собеседника, т. е. адресата письма, который по определению не находится в непосредственном дейктическом поле говорящего (автора). Староассирийский вентив прошёл ту же семантическую эволюцию, что и глаголы движения ПРИХОДИТЬ и цислокативные маркеры в некоторых языках мира. Этот "дейктический переход первой ступени", как можно его назвать - проекция от говорящего к собеседнику - был полностью грамматикализован в староассирийском языке. Дейктический переход "второй ступени", т. е. указывающий на местоположение третьего лица в момент речи, требует особых условий; в частности, анафорического указания на ранее упомянутое место, которое также является будущим местоположением говорящего. Также вентив может использоваться при указании на местоположение третьего лица. Такое употребление, видимо, обуславливается тонкими прагматическими соображениями, которые невозможно понять при отсутствии информантов.

Вентив сопутствующего движения в староассирийском языке обозначает только последующее движение. Этот факт плохо согласуется с общепринятой иерархией показателей сопутствующего движения: предыдущее > одновременное > последующее. В целом, последующее движение — самый редкий тип сопутствующего движения в языках мира. Скорее всего, отсутствие предшествующего и одновременного движения в староассирийском — искажение данных из-за ограниченности корпуса. В то время как независимый показатель сопутствующего движения может присоединяться только к ограниченному кругу глаголов, использование этого показателя в эхо-конструкциях более универсально. Эхо-конструкции, вероятно, и послужили источником для независимых показателей сопутствующего движения: глаголы, которые часто входили в эхо -конструкции из-

за их контекстной связи с движением, начали принимать показатель сопутствующего движения независимо. Затем независимый показатель сопутствующего движения прошел различные стадии лексикализации на разных глаголах. На начальной стадии вентив сопутствующего движения указывает на местонахождение автора: т.е. вентив сохраняет свою первичную функцию, а на заключительной он полностью лексикализован и семантически «обесцвечен». На подлинных движения значения вентива развиваются в направлении дейктических переходов (ориентация на автора > ориентация на адресата > ориентация на третье лицо), тогда как на глаголах без семантики движения вентив сопутствующего движения трансформируется в общий показатель движения.

Показатели бенефактива в староассирийском языке бывают двух видов: рефлексив-бенефактив и общий бенефактив. Рефлексив-бенефактив встречается главным образом у глаголов, связанных с получением (напр. ^а?ит 'брать, получать'). На разных глаголах он лексикализован в разной степени. В единичных показатель рефлексива-бенефактива встречается на глаголах из других семантических сфер, и это свидетельствует, что в устной староассирийской речи этот показатель мог использоваться как средство фокализации не только при глаголах с семантикой получения, но и при иных переходных глаголах.

Показатель общего бенефактива встречается при одном переходном глаголе, и, спорадически, на разных непереходных глаголах, семантика которых также связана с обладанием (напр. пакит 'оставаться (в качестве приобретения или долга)'. Всего в корпусе засвидетельствовано 34 вхождения рефлексивно-бенефактивного показателя и 43 вхождения непереходного бенефактивного показателя.